Madeline
Antilla
Arcadia
High School
Madeline
Antilla
Arcadia
High School
Discussion questions:
Have the students read it carefully.
JAP BOAT FLASHES MESSAGE ASHORE
ENEMY PLANES SIGHTED OVER CALIFORNIA COAST
TWO JAPS WITH MAPS AND ALIEN LITERATURE SEIZED
JAP AND CAMERA HELD IN BAY AREA
CAPS ON JAPANESE TOMATO PLANTS POINT TO AIR BASE
JAPANESE HERE SENT VITAL DATA TO TOKYO
CHINESE ABLE TO SPOT JAP
MAP REVEALS JAP MENACE
NETWORK OF ALIEN FARMS COVERS STRATEGIC DEFENSE AREAS OVER SOUTHLAND
(Roger Daniels, The Politics of Incarceration, p. 29)
Show the Superman comic. What justification does the comic give for
the incarceration of Japanese Americans? What does the comic imply about
the conditions in the fictional Camp Carok? What added authority does this
comic give to the incarcerations?
Show quotation from the
military commander, Lt. General John DeWitt. Discuss what the impact
is of this man making the decision that the incarceration of Japanese Americans
was a "military necessity." Point out that several government reports,
including a report from the Department of Justice said that the Japanese
Americans posed no risk. Point out that in Hawaii, where there was a different
military commander, Japanese Americans were not rounded up (some leaders
were arrested).
Journal Entry: How would the pamphlet, headlines, and comic contribute
to suspicion against all people of Japanese ancestry?
Homework: Read "Internment of the Japanese Americans: Military Necessity
or Racial Prejudice" http://www.odu.edu/~hanley/historical/klimov.htm
Discussion questions:
Discuss the gallery walk and discuss why some photos make the people
seem so happy. Who is taking the pictures? Who is meant to see them? What
is the purpose of the pictures? Why are some written entries so much more
candid? Why do some of the entries contradict each other? What factors
affected the information in the quotations? (Point out that each person’s
view of the events depends on their experience, age, gender, and other
factors). Discuss with the students what they think would be the worst
thing about going to live at Santa Anita Assembly Center.
Journal Entry: Choose one of the photographs and write from the point
of view of a person in the picture. "Today (April 7, 1942) we arrived at
Santa Anita Assembly Center. Let me take a moment to describe what it is
like. . ."
(Optional Activity) Living Tableau: Make an overhead transparency
of one or more of the pictures. Have students stand in front of the projected
transparency and tell the class what they are experiencing.
If you end at day two, have the class read the LA Times article,
"Santa Anita Gates to Open to 1000 Japs." This article is a masterful piece
of wartime propaganda and euphemistic phrases.
"Business in Evacuation Centers," Business Week, July 18,
1942
"Santa Anita Gates to Open to 1000 Japs" Los Angeles Times, April
4, 1942.
Excepts from Morning Glory, Evening Shadow
Excerpts from Amy Uno Ishii interview
Copies of Pacemaker, the Santa Anita Assembly Center newspaper,
April to October, 1942
Online Resources:
Links from the Arizona State Library
http://www.library.arizona.edu/images/jpamer/internet.html
These include Ansel Adams photographs, information on Poston Relocation
Center, memoirs, and War Relocation Agency photographs.
War Relocation Authority Camps in Arizona
http://www.library.arizona.edu/images/jpamer/wraintro.html
Japanese American Internment
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/8420/main.html
Internment of San Francisco Japanese Americans
http://www.sfmuseum.org/war/evactxt.html
Manzanar
http://www.nps.gov/manz/
Japanese American Pamphlet
http://www.lib.washington.edu/exhibits/harmony/Documents/wrapam.html
Japanese American War Veterans
http://www.cosmoslink.net/~jimy/index.html
Japanese American Internment Links
http://www.rr.gmcs.k12.nm.us/domagala.internment.htm
National Japanese American Historical Society
http://www.nikkeiheritage.org/
Japanese American Interment Links
http://www.oz.net/~cyu/internment/main.html
Japanese Americans-442nd
http://www.katonk.com/442nd/442nd.htm
Japanese American Internment During World War II
http://topcat.bridgew.edu/~kschrock/ED560/lamb/Japanese.htm
Japanese American National Museum
http://www.janm.org/
Santa Anita Assembly Center Photographs
http://www.oac.cdlib.org:28008/dynaweb/ead/calher/jvac/@Generic__BookTextView/108722;hf=0;nh=1;pt=108541?DwebQuery=Santa+Anita+
Each group will take notes on the following topics in their journals
with these headings:
Housing and daily life
Work
Recreation
Education
Health and Food
Discuss what the purpose of what the memorial should be. Ideas for the purpose of the memorial may include: to provoke emotion, to honor an event, to educate, etc. Solicit from the students ways that they can achieve these goals through quotations, pictures, shape, structure, tone, color, use of positive and negative space, etc. Each cooperative group will create a memorial dealing with at least 4 of the topics from day three. Develop a rubric for grading the memorial with the class prior to its creation based on exhibiting the knowledge they gained from their research in visual, written, and symbolic representations.
Show excerpts from the movie "Come See the Paradise," Twentieth Century Fox, An Alan Parker Film, 1990. (This film has some scenes shot at Santa Anita Racetrack).
Take a field trip to Santa Anita Racetrack. Students may use a map to try to figure out where the barracks were. They may also want to take photographs using the same views as the 1942 WRA photos to compare how this have changed.
Have students create a web page with their research information and
photos from the National Archives and Records Administration.
"We were confined to horse stables. The horse stables were whitewashed.
In the hot summers, the legs of the cots were sinking through the asphalt.
We were given mattress covers and told to stuff straw in them. The toilet
facilities were terrible. They were communal. There were no partitions.
Toilet paper was rationed by family members. We had to, to bathe, go to
the horse showers. The horses all took showers in there, regardless of
sex, but with human beings, they built a partition. . .The women complained
that the men were climbing over the top to view the women taking showers.
(When the women complained) one of the officials said, are you sure you
women are not climbing the walls to look at the men." (Personal Justice
Denied, p. 139).
"It had extra guard towers with a searchlight panoraming (sic) the
camp, and it was very difficult to sleep because the light kept coming
into our window. . .I wasn’t in a stable area, . . .(but) everyone who
was in a stable area claimed that they were in the stall that housed the
great Sea Biscuit."(Personal Justice Denied, p 139).
"At Santa Anita, hospital records show that about 75% of the illnesses
came from occupants of the horse stalls." (Personal Justice Denied,
p. 144).
"Some of the families were separated after they reached the centers.
A seventeen-year-old who sneaked away from Santa Anita to go to the movies
one night was apprehended. He was sent away to a different camp and did
not see his family for three years" (Personal Justice Denied, p.
141).
"(W)e stood two hours three times a day with pails in our hands like
beggars to receive our meals. There was no hot water, no washing or bathing.
It took about two months before we lived half way civilized" (Personal
Justice Denied, p. 141).
"The assembly centers had been organized to feed the evacuees in
large messhalls (sic). At Santa Anita, for example one evacuee recalls
three large messhalls (sic) were meals were served in three shifts of 2,000
each. Where shift feeding was instituted, a system of regulatory badges
prevented evacuees from attending the same meal at various messhalls (sic).
Lining up and waiting to eat is a memory shared by many: We stood in line
with a tin cup and plate to be fed. I can still vividly recall my 85- year-old
grandmother gravely standing in line with her tin cup and plate" (Personal
Justice Denied, p.141).
"The community feeding weakened family ties. At first families tried
to stay together; some even obtained food from the messhall (sic) and brought
it back to their quarters in order to eat together. In time, however, children
began to eat with their friends" (Personal Justice Denied, p. 141).
"Santa Anita’s camouflage net project produced enough to offset the
cost of food for the whole camp. Limited to American citizens, the project
attracted more than 800 evacuees. The camouflage net factory was the site
of the only strike in the assembly center, a sit-down protest over working
conditions, including insufficient food" (Personal Justice Denied,
p. 146).
"Santa Anita evacuees vividly recall the ‘riot’ of August 4, 1942.
The uproar began with a routine search for contraband, particularly electrical
hot plates, which in some cases had been authorized. [Some] of the searchers
became over-zealous and abusive. When the evacuees failed for several hours
to reach the chief of internal security, rumors began to spread and crowds
formed. The searchers were harassed, though none was injured. At this point,
the military police were called in with tanks and machine guns, ending
the ‘riot’" (Personal Justice Denied, p. 147-148).
"At Santa Anita, each family was allowed only one visitor’s permit
per week, and visitors were limited for 30 minutes" (Personal Justice
Denied, p. 148).
"Food became controversial at Santa Anita, where a camp staff member
was apparently stealing food. A letter writing campaign began and, at one
point, a confrontation with the guards was narrowly avoided when evacuees
tried to halt the car of a Caucasian mess steward who they believed was
purloining food. Following an investigation, the guilty staff member was
dismissed" (Personal Justice Denied, p. 142).
"Unofficial blackouts are uncalled for at Santa Anita. . .the reason
for this condition, they [camp officials] said, is that the electrical
system throughout the Center provides for only one 40-whatt globe to each
room. This is the maximum carrying load" (Pacemaker, May 1, 1942).
"[W]e were taken to Santa Anita Racetrack where all of our belongings
were unloaded. . .We were given a family number and a family barrack, a
unit. Then they opened all of our belongings, inspected everything to see
that there was no contraband, and then they made us tie them up again.
Then we were told to find our barrack. If you don’t think that was one
big circus!" (Japanese American Oral History Project: Internees,
Amy Uno Ishii, pages 64-65).
"Shown to their barracks [at Santa Anita], each family was presented
with a broom with a mop, and a bucket-when they were lucky-for most of
the camps were inconceivably dusty" (The Great Betrayal, p. 148).
"Tekeshi and Ellen Shibuya boarded the train for Santa Anita at Mountain
View. ‘The soldiers came aboard, and all had their guns. The window shades
were drawn. We didn’t know where we were going. I was a horrible feeling,
because we didn’t know what was happening to us.’ Another woman recalls,
‘I was pregnant. I was supposed to be ordered a berth, or was it just a
seat? I didn’t get my berth. There was an army officer or a nurse or someone
who had that berth, and we had a big argument about that, I remember, because
pregnant women were supposed to have special accommodations. I remember
I thought it was terrible. I don’t know whether I cried or not. The train
trip is a perfect blank too me’" (The Great Betrayal, p. 143).
"Doctors accompanied the trains. One of the sick passengers in a
Pullman enroute (sic) to Santa Anita became worse in the night and was
taken off the train at Santa Barbara where he died in a hospital. His family
was not allowed to accompany him to the hospital" (The Great Betrayal,
p.
143).
"What struck most of the internees was the sudden horror of the watchtowers,
the soldiers with bared bayonets, and the searchlights at night ceaselessly
playing over the grounds. A Nisei wrote to a friend. . .’This evacuation
did not seem too unfair until we got right to the camp and were met by
soldiers with guns and bayonets. Then I almost started screaming. . ."’
(The Great Betrayal, p. 147).
"Living quarters were often a considerable distance from the restrooms,
showers, and laundry rooms. This was tiring for mothers with babies who
had to wash diapers every day. There were no washing machines, and clothes
were scrubbed on washboards. If the faucets in the showers were too high,
the laundry tubs were too low. A (N)isei college girl described the laundry
room at Santa Anita: ’There are two long tables, and underneath there is
a sort of water trough. On both sides of the tables are faucets and little
platforms to put your tub or bucket. The people who built them must have
thought the Japanese women were awfully short for they’re only eighteen
inches form the ground’" (The Great Betrayal, p. 167).
"We went without lunch the day we arrived here [Santa Anita Assembly
Center]; at 5 p.m. much hoped for supper came. But alas the Mess Hall sounded
like a battle, with booming and banging of metal dining service; the worst
was yet to come: the supper consisted of a small quantity of baked spaghetti,
a small potato, and a little rice and water. What a come down for a professor!
Our living quarter is a small portion of wood-shed of the cheapest type,
very poorly constructed; we hear everything that goes in on either side
and more. There is no privacy of any kind. In short the general conditions
are bad without any exaggeration; we are fast being converted into veritable
Okies" (Morning Glory, Evening Shadow, pages 105-106).
"Yesterday the new arrivals were filmed, which will doubtless impress
the public favorably; but it was dramatized for the purpose. Soldiers appeared
on the train platform and assisted the aged and young. When we arrived,
we were forced to hunt for our luggage scattered on the half-mile long
platform and not a soul to help. We stood there before our luggage was
carried to our shed. What a difference! Why not film the true picture?
No American visitors are permitted to enter the camp; interviews are held
outside. The conditions cannot stand inspection" (Morning Glory, Evening
Shadow, p. 106).
"Mr. Ichihashi has written about some of our experiences during our
terrible trip from San Jose to Santa Anita. We were vaccinated and inoculated
on Thursday, a day after our arrival; Mr. Ichihashi has thus far escaped
from any suffering; but I developed a fever and suffered. I am much better
now, although I cannot still use my right hand." (Morning Glory, Evening
Shadow, p. 106).
"First of all, whether it was so intended or not, the Wartime Civil
Control Administration under the Army’s authority, has established a truly
classless community. . .Residents (inmates more appropriately) are not
recognized as individuals; we are numbered for identification and treated
exactly alike except babies one year and younger as regards for foods.
We are fed, quartered and forced to do our own washing, including sheets,
shirts, and what not. Washing facilities are wholly inadequate. They do
not allow washing done by a laundry outside. Why I do not know. Criticisms
relative [to] any matter are not tolerated by the management; a few days
[ago] a doctor was railroaded from here because he, as a scientist, has
tried to bring about improvements. It is very dangerous for any individual
to try [not to go] along the line" (Morning Glory, Evening Shadow,
p. 109).
"The Camp has a population of 18,400, each of which is numbered for
identification; for instance I am No. 556IA, which is required for every
transaction in the Camp; of course aside from mails, we have no contact
with the outside world"(Morning Glory, Evening Shadow, p. 109).
"In management of the classless community, the government has apparently
adopted the lowest conceivable standard of treating human beings; thousands
are still housed in stables; a stable for one animal is now occupied from
five to six persons. They are still odorous and poor ventilation. Of course,
barracks are constructed exactly like our old fashioned wood-shed; each
barrack is partitioned into six sections so that inmates have 4 walls,
all constructed of rough pine boards nailed in a manner so that on the
average [there is] ½ inch of spaces between these wall boards; you
can not only hear what goes on in the barrack, but can see, if you want,
what goes on next door. There is no privacy anywhere; we have become veritable
animals as far as our living is concerned" (Morning Glory, Evening Shadow,
p. 109-110).
"Because of the coarseness of the foods, digestive organs have a
hard time functioning properly. Diarrhoea (sic) is prevalent, often causing
panics in the lavatories, and this is no exaggeration" (Morning Glory,
Evening Shadow, p. 110).
"Yet we are forced to face the shortage of medics and drugs and other
necessary elements: there is one doctor to each 3,000 persons and only
3 dentists and some nurses. . .Emergency cases are frequent. So far one
death has occurred, but babies are born every day, often three to four;
there are 800 potential mothers among the inmates" (Morning Glory, Evening
Shadow, p. 110).
"Learned that 50 cents per capita-per day is appropriated [from the
government], which is sub-divided under 3 categories as follows: 40 cents
for meals, 6 cents for room, and 4 cents for ‘miscellaneous’ (unknowables)"
(Morning Glory, Evening Shadow, p. 111).
"Toilets in my section are kept orderly and clean; others are not,
even showing the evidence of leakage into streets (14 paces wide). Barracks
and toilets are closely located. Waste water from showers and washing forms
a large quantity, but is run in an open ditch which runs in the middle
of the camp. It emits odorous gas very bad" (Morning Glory, Evening
Shadow, p. 111).
"Camouflage net-making (no aliens) is being done by citizens (the
pay being $8.00 [per month] as unskilled); workers are supposed to be volunteers,
but were practically drafted" (Morning Glory, Evening Shadow, p.
112).
"Evacuees are paid in cash for their work at the centers, and they
are permitted to bank such savings by mail. At the relocation centers,
they get paid $12 a month for unskilled labor, $16 for semi-skilled, and
$19 for skilled or professional services. In addition residents get coupons.
. .$2.50 a month for individual adults, $4 for a married couple, $1 for
children under 16; no family receives more than $7 a month" (Business
Week, July 18, 1942, p. 20).
(In response to the question, "How big a living space did you have
as a family?") ". . .I know we had to crawl over and around the beds. In
fact, the joke there was that you had to back out of your room to make
the bed, because we had so many beds in our barracks. But after awhile,
after they got all the people in. . .they were able to find that they could
double up a lot of the bachelors and the old maids to make space. They
eventually got around to giving the mother of the larger families and the
real small, grammar school children one unit. . .But we still all went
to the same latrines, mess halls, laundries, and showers. This was what
you would call total communal living." (Interview with Amy Uno Ishii).
"We were allowed to take approximately a hundred pounds per person
or as much as each individual could carry, and they told you the kinds
of things you could bring. . .The evacuation poster will tell you. At the
bottom it said, "Things that you will need to bring.’ Like very personal,
private things that you need: a cup or a mug, a plate, a fork, a spoon
and a butter knife, no sharp-edged knives, bedding enough for each person,
changes of clothing—be prepared for pioneer living, and things like that.
. .We were only allowed to bring what was absolutely necessary." (Interview
with Amy Uno Ishii).
"We were told to assemble at the Centenary Methodist Church on the
corner of Thirty-fifth and Normandie. . . Depending on where you lived
you were told to be at a particular place by 9 a.m. on a particular day.
Then the trucks and the buses would roll up and take all your belongings.
They tagged everything with your name. Then you got on trucks and buses.
From the minute we left our home to the time we arrived at Santa Anita
Racetrack, we had no idea where we were going." (Interview with Amy Uno
Ishii).
"A Japanese-American was approached by a Caucasian truck diver who
had entered the Santa Anita center on a delivery job. ‘Why don’t you guys
go back where you came from?’ asked the trucker belligerently. ‘What!’
exclaimed the Japanese in mock horror, ‘Go back to Iowa? No! No! Anything
but that!’" (Business Week, July 18, 1942, p. 19)
"I have had our military authorities on the West Coast investigate
the reported unsanitary condition (at Santa Anita Assembly Center), and
while I have been assured that the existing conditions do not endanger
the health of the community, work is now under way at Santa Anita to improve
the method used to dispose of kitchen, laundry and bath water. When this
work in completed this waste water will be run into large settling tank
where it will be given a heavy treatment of chlorine (sic). . .This will
eliminate the use of the open ditch to carry off this water. . .I assure
you that while the Santa Anita property is occupied, the Army will do everything
possible to protect the health of the citizens in the surrounding communities."
(Letter from John J. McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War to Mrs. Frantress,
a resident of Arcadia, July 17, 1942)
"Multimillion-dollar Santa Anita track-the world’s most luxurious
racing plant-yesterday opened its gates as an assembly station for Japanese
evacuees. Into the verdant grounds of the establishment, nestled amid ancient
oaks and peppers at the foot of the lofty San Gabriels, the initial contingent
of 1000 aliens-removed from the bustling San Pedro-Long Beach harbor area-filed
to take up temporary abode. . .On the vast garden plot surrounding the
imposing grandstand and clubhouse, where a year ago movie stars in silver
fox rubbed shoulders with hang-tail followers in checkered coats, has been
erected as far as the eye can see, apartment dwellings to house the ‘guests’.
. . Most of the new arrivals took to the place at first glance, expressing
open admiration at the beauty of the surroundings, their faces wreathed
in smiles" ("Santa Anita Gates Open to 1000 Japs" Los Angeles Times,
April 4, 1942)
Poem by Masao Keneda at Santa Anita Assembly Center
Received by NJASRC offices November 2, 1942
I know I’m only a Japanese
My skin in darker than yours.
But still I can love the U.S.A.
Whatever our country endures.
I’d fight for "freedom and liberty"
I’d die with the best of you.
But here behind this barbed wire fence
What can a patriot do?
I know no flag but the "Stars and Stripes"
Your songs are the songs I sing.
My tongue knows only the words you speak.
But what do my loyalties bring:
I have full faith in most of you.
You have full trust in me.
But some of you hold me in open scorn
In this land of the "equal and free."
A citizen-loyal and true-am I.
Test me however you may!
But give me the chance to prove my worth.
Please don’t just chuck me away!
(Modern American History, p. 66)
Los Angeles Times from December 8, 1941 to February 23, 1942:
JAP BOAT FLASHES MESSAGE ASHORE
ENEMY PLANES SIGHTED OVER CALIFORNIA COAST
TWO JAPS WITH MAPS AND ALIEN LITERATURE SEIZED
JAP AND CAMERA HELD IN BAY AREA
CAPS ON JAPANESE TOMATO PLANTS POINT TO AIR BASE
JAPANESE HERE SENT VITAL DATA TO TOKYO
CHINESE ABLE TO SPOT JAP
MAP REVEALS JAP MENACE
NETWORK OF ALIEN FARMS COVERS STRATEGIC DEFENSE AREAS OVER SOUTHLAND
. . .[There are] approximately 288,000 enemy aliens. . . which we have to watch
. . . I have little confidence that the aliens are law-abiding or loyal in any sense of the word. Some of them yes; many, no. Paricularly the Japanese. I have no confidence in their loyalty whatsoever. I am speaking now of the native born Japanese-117,000 and 42,000 in California alone." (comments by Lt. Gen. John L. DeWitt, head of the Western Defense Command, January 4, 1942)*
Suggested Time Period: 2-6 class periods
Framework/Standards Connection and Geography Theme/ Standards:
Grade eleven of the California History-Social Science Framework calls
for the study of the relocation and internment of 110,000 Japanese Americans
in the World War II unit as a violation of their human rights.
National Geographic Standard number 13: "How the forces of cooperation
and conflict among people influence the division and control of earth’s
surface." This lesson addresses the themes of place and movement.
The 1998 History-Social Science Content Standards specifies:
"11.7 Students analyze the American participation in World War II,
in terms of…
Primary Sources/Literature:
California Heritage Collection http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/FindingAids/dynaweb/calher/jvac/figures/
Hansen, Arthur A. "Amy Uno Ishii." Japanese American World War II Evacuation Oral History Project, Part I: Internees. Westport, CT: Meckler, 1991.
"Japanese Aliens’ Roundup Starts," Los Angeles Times, December 8, 1941.
National Archives and Records Administration http://monitor.nara.gov:80/cgi-bin/starfinder/17659/standard.txt
Pacemaker, the Santa Anita Assembly Center newspaper, April to October, 1942. UCLA University Research Library, microfilm collection.
"Santa Anita Gates Open to 1000 Japs" Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1942
Van Fleet, T.S. Once a Jap Always a Jap. Special collections UCLA, Japanese American Research Project, Box 345 (anti-Japanese folder).
Yamato, Ichihashi. Morning Glory, Evening Shadow Yamato Ichihashi
and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1997.
Bibliography:
Bailey, Paul. City in the Sun. Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1971.
Burke, Robert (ed.). Modern American History. Washington: A Garland Series.
"Business in Evacuation Centers," Business Week, July 18, 1942.
Daniels, Roger. The Decision to Relocate the Japanese Americans. Malabar, Florida: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., 1986.
Daniels, Roger. The Politics of Incarceration, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993.
"Evacuation Poster" UCLA Special Collections, Japanese American Research Project, Box 158.
Girdner, Audrie and Anne Loftis. The Great Betrayal, the Evacuation of Japanese-Americans During World War II. London: The MacMillan Company, 1969.
Hansen, Arthur A. "Amy Uno Ishii." Japanese American World War II Evacuation Oral History Project, Part I: Internees. Westport, CT: Meckler, 1991.
"Japanese Aliens’ Roundup Starts," Los Angeles Times, December 8, 1941.
Klimova, Tatiana A. "Internment of the Japanese Americans: Military Necessity or Racial Prejudice" URL http://www.odu.edu/~hanley/historical/klimov.htm, July 27, 1998.
Lehman, Anthony L. Birthright of Barbed Wire. Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1970.
Pacemaker, the Santa Anita Assembly Center newspaper, April to October, 1942. UCLA University Research Library, microfilm collection.
Personal Justice Denied: Commission Report on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Washington, D.C.: Commission, 1983.
"Santa Anita Gates Open to 1000 Japs" Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1942
Van Fleet, T.S. Once a Jap Always a Jap. Special collections UCLA, Japanese American Research Project, Box 345 (anti-Japanese folder).
Yamato, Ichihashi. Morning Glory, Evening Shadow Yamato Ichihashi
and His Internment Writings, 1942-1945. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1997.